{"id":5412,"date":"2025-07-05T15:16:55","date_gmt":"2025-07-05T19:16:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/?page_id=5412"},"modified":"2025-08-19T12:56:27","modified_gmt":"2025-08-19T16:56:27","slug":"volume-15-issue-2","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/volume-15-issue-2\/","title":{"rendered":"Volume 15, Issue 2"},"content":{"rendered":"\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/87\/2025\/07\/01_HLB_15_2_AyresKlass-2.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">HOW TO USE THE RESTATEMENT OF CONSUMER CONTRACTS: A GUIDE FOR JUDGES<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Ian Ayres &amp; Gregory Klass<sup class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote \" data-mfn=\"1\" data-mfn-post-scope=\"00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412\"><a href=\"javascript:void(0)\"  role=\"button\" aria-pressed=\"false\" aria-describedby=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-1\">1<\/a><\/sup><span id=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-1\" role=\"tooltip\" class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote__note\" tabindex=\"0\" data-mfn=\"1\">Ian Ayres, Oscar M. Ruebhausen Professor, Yale Law School; Gregory Klass Frederick J. Haas Chair in Law and Philosophy, Georgetown University Law Center. Mingyi Hua, Richard Peay, and Ronglu Sun provided excellent research assistance.<\/span><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>Many significant changes to contract law over the past hundred years have been driven by changes in the technology of contracting\u2014the mechanisms people use (or try to use) to create or alter their legal relationships. Early in the twentieth century, cheap printing and mass markets paved the way for standard-form contractual writings and adding terms to noncontractual documents, such as purchase orders and parking receipts.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/87\/2025\/07\/02_HLB_15_2_Bar-Gill.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">A COMPANION GUIDE TO THE RESTATEMENT OF CONSUMER CONTRACTS<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Oren Bar-Gill, Omri Ben-Shahar, &amp; Florencia Marotta-Wurgler<sup class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote \" data-mfn=\"2\" data-mfn-post-scope=\"00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412\"><a href=\"javascript:void(0)\"  role=\"button\" aria-pressed=\"false\" aria-describedby=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-2\">2<\/a><\/sup><span id=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-2\" role=\"tooltip\" class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote__note\" tabindex=\"0\" data-mfn=\"2\">Bar-Gill is the William J. Friedman and Alicia Townsend Friedman Professor of Law and Economics at Harvard Law School. Ben-Shahar is the Leo and Eileen Herzel Distinguished Service Professor of Law at the University of Chicago Law School. Marotta-Wurgler is the Boxer Family Professor of Law at the New York Universirty School of Law.<\/span><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>In 2012, we were invited to serve as Reporters for a new and ambitious project of the American Law Institute (\u201cALI\u201d) \u2013 a Restatement of Consumer Contracts. We were charged with the task of codifying the common law governing consumer contracts. This was a gutsy move by the ALI, entrusting a sacred doctrinal enterprise in the hands of outsiders to the ALI culture. We are scholars devoted to studying the effects of laws and whether they achieve their intended consequences. In our research on consumer protection, we studied which regulatory reforms work well, which are futile, and which do more harm than good. Our research harbored only modest ambitions in the study of what the law <em>is<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/87\/2025\/07\/03_HLB_15_2_Hoffman.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">CONSUMERS\u2019 UNREASONABLE TEXTUAL EXPECTATIONS<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">David A. Hoffman<sup class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote \" data-mfn=\"3\" data-mfn-post-scope=\"00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412\"><a href=\"javascript:void(0)\"  role=\"button\" aria-pressed=\"false\" aria-describedby=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-3\">3<\/a><\/sup><span id=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-3\" role=\"tooltip\" class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote__note\" tabindex=\"0\" data-mfn=\"3\">William A. Schnader Professor of Law, University of Pennsylvania Carey School of Law. I\u2019m grateful to the organizers and participants at the Restatement of Consumer Contracts conference for comments.<\/span><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>The Restatement of Consumer Contracts, at \u00a7 4(d), states that \u201cstandard contract terms are interpreted in a manner that effectuates the reasonable expectations of the consumer.\u201d As the Reporters note, this language derives from the Restatement (Second) of Contracts \u00a7 211, itself largely pulled from the insurance context. As \u00a7 211 was until recently thought to be nearly dead-letter, the Consumer Restatement\u2019s interest in revitalizing the reasonable expectations rule (for interpretation and elsewhere in the document) is of particular interest. The Reporters offer a helpfully capacious definition of what consumers reasonably expect: A \u201ctotality of the circumstances,\u201d test \u201cin consideration of the ordinary behavior and perspective of consumers engaged in the type of transaction at issue and their interaction with the business, including the representations made to them, the typical purpose of such transactions, and the preservation of value of the nonstandard or core terms of the deal.\u201d But it\u2019s fair to worry that judges will be unable to reliably make this kind of holistic determination in individual cases, as they lack information about consumers\u2019 ordinary practices. In this Essay, I summarize the available evidence of what consumers have in mind when they interpret contracts, and a methodological options judges have before them in making reasoned determinations. Contrary to advocates\u2019 hopes, \u00a7 4(d)\u2019s interpretation principle will be\u2014even if adopted\u2014unlikely to produce uniformly pro-consumer outcomes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/87\/2025\/07\/04_HLB_15_2_McCoy.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">INFLECTION POINTS IN THE DRAFTING OF THE RESTATEMENT OF CONSUMER CONTRACTS: SALIENCE AND ITS ARC<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Patricia A. McCoy<sup class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote \" data-mfn=\"4\" data-mfn-post-scope=\"00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412\"><a href=\"javascript:void(0)\"  role=\"button\" aria-pressed=\"false\" aria-describedby=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-4\">4<\/a><\/sup><span id=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-4\" role=\"tooltip\" class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote__note\" tabindex=\"0\" data-mfn=\"4\">Liberty Mutual Insurance Professor, Boston College Law School. Professor McCoy was an Adviser to the Restatement of the Law, Consumer Contracts.<\/span><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>All Reporters come to Restatement projects with priors, and that was no less true for the Restatement of the Law, Consumer Contracts (\u201cRCK\u201d or \u201cRestatement\u201d). One of the RCK\u2019s Reporters, Omri Ben-Shahar, had coauthored an acclaimed book detailing disclosure\u2019s failure to afford consumer protection. Another Reporter, Florencia Marotta-Wurgler, had conducted definitive research demonstrating that almost no consumers read the terms and conditions in online contracts. The Reporters were concerned about consumer harm, yet skeptical of disclosure as the appropriate regulatory tool.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/87\/2025\/07\/05_HLB_15_2_Schwarcz.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">NARROWING THE FRAME: CONSUMER INSURANCE POLICIES AND THE LIMITS OF THE RESTATEMENT OF CONSUMER CONTRACTS<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Daniel Schwarcz<sup class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote \" data-mfn=\"5\" data-mfn-post-scope=\"00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412\"><a href=\"javascript:void(0)\"  role=\"button\" aria-pressed=\"false\" aria-describedby=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-5\">5<\/a><\/sup><span id=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-5\" role=\"tooltip\" class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote__note\" tabindex=\"0\" data-mfn=\"5\">Fredrikson &amp; Byron Professor of Law, University of Minnesota Law School.<\/span><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>Efforts to restate the law must contend with a fundamental framing challenge: Determining how broadly or narrowly to define the area of law to be addressed. This decision inevitably involves trade-offs. Narrow formulations may yield nuanced and precise rules, but risk diminishing the utility of the restatement and obscuring overarching themes and objectives. Conversely, broad formulations may provide a more comprehensive view of the law, but risk oversimplifying its nuances, conflating distinct lines of precedent, and overlooking critical details.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/87\/2025\/07\/06_HLB_15_2_Stone.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">A DEMOCRATIC CONCEPTION OF CONSUMER CONTRACTS<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Rebecca Stone<sup class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote \" data-mfn=\"6\" data-mfn-post-scope=\"00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412\"><a href=\"javascript:void(0)\"  role=\"button\" aria-pressed=\"false\" aria-describedby=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-6\">6<\/a><\/sup><span id=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-6\" role=\"tooltip\" class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote__note\" tabindex=\"0\" data-mfn=\"6\">Professor, UCLA School of Law. Thanks to Jon Quong and participants at the ALI Sym- posium on the Restatement of Consumer Contracts for helpful comments. Thanks also to Raj Ashar and the editors of the Harvard Business Law Review for excellent editorial assistance.<\/span><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>I sketch and briefly evaluate two standard ways of conceptualizing the problem that is posed by consumer contracts and defend a third view, which is based on my democratic conception of contract. According to the first, the power asymmetry between sellers and consumers means that we should not view consumer contracts as genuine contracts but rather as illegitimate exercises of private law-making by sellers for their consumers. According to the second, which broadly aligns with the approach of the Restatement of Consumer Contracts, consumer contracts are genuine contracts but of a procedurally defective kind. On the view I defend, the essence of the problem is not the compromised assent of consumers, but rather the tendency of sellers to set terms without regard for consumers\u2019 interests.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/87\/2025\/07\/07_HLB_15_2_Weise.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">RESTATEMENT OF THE LAW, CONSUMER CONTRACTS AND THE \u201cTOTALITY OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES\u201d<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Steve Weise<sup class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote \" data-mfn=\"7\" data-mfn-post-scope=\"00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412\"><a href=\"javascript:void(0)\"  role=\"button\" aria-pressed=\"false\" aria-describedby=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-7\">7<\/a><\/sup><span id=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-7\" role=\"tooltip\" class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote__note\" tabindex=\"0\" data-mfn=\"7\">Partner, Proskauer Rose LLP; UCLA School of Law, Lecturer in Law; Member, Council of the American Law Institute; Member, Permanent Editorial Board for the Uniform Commercial Code.<\/span><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>The concept of using the \u201ctotality of the circumstances\u201d plays a central role in the Restatement of the Law, Consumer Contracts (Restatement). The Restatement regularly uses this approach to evaluate the matters identified in the following paragraph. The Restatement uses a \u201ctotality of the circumstances\u201d test to determine when a \u201cfeature of the parties\u2019 conduct or communications\u201d is \u201creasonable\u201d (when required to be \u201creasonable\u201d by the Restatement), and identify a consumer\u2019s reasonable expectations in connection with the interpretation of a consumer contract.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<hr class=\"wp-block-separator has-alpha-channel-opacity\"\/>\n\n\n\n<h5 class=\"wp-block-heading\">VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION<\/h5>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\"><a href=\"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/87\/2025\/07\/08_HLB_15_2_Wilkinson-Ryan.pdf\" target=\"_blank\" rel=\"noopener\">THE PSYCHOLOGY OF MISLEADINGNESS: A STUDY AND A RESEARCH AGENDA<\/a><\/h3>\n\n\n\n<h6 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Tess Wilkinson-Ryan<sup class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote \" data-mfn=\"8\" data-mfn-post-scope=\"00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412\"><a href=\"javascript:void(0)\"  role=\"button\" aria-pressed=\"false\" aria-describedby=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-8\">8<\/a><\/sup><span id=\"mfn-content-00000000000001fb0000000000000000_5412-8\" role=\"tooltip\" class=\"modern-footnotes-footnote__note\" tabindex=\"0\" data-mfn=\"8\">Golkin Family Professor of Law, University of Pennsylvania Carey Law School. I am grateful to Oren Bar-Gill, Omri Ben-Shahar, and Florencia Marotta-Wurgler for hosting the symposium and for their feedback. I am also thankful to David Hoffman, Michael Morse, and Ben Sirolly for generous comments and discussions. Finally, I am indebted to Selma Halal and Cristina Bermudez for their excellent research assistance.<\/span><\/h6>\n\n\n\n<p>Traditional contract doctrine, at least as it exists in the casebooks, seems surprisingly indifferent to the problems of deception. Contract law has one big move to protect against deception: a strict liability approach to breach that grants expectation damages whether the promise was untruthful or just optimistic. Unlike showing fraud in tort, which includes an intent element, the uniform approach of contract doctrine is to hold fraudsters to their promises whether or not the injured party can prove a promise was a lie. But once we move past contract\u2019s big move\u2014the plaintiff-friendly protection of the expectation interest irrespective of deceptive intent\u2014the indifference to deception can be a doctrinal gift to the would-be deceivers.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>VOLUME 15 \u2022 CONSUMER PROTECTION HOW TO USE THE RESTATEMENT OF CONSUMER CONTRACTS: A GUIDE FOR JUDGES Ian Ayres &amp; [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":109,"featured_media":0,"parent":0,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"site-sidebar-layout":"default","site-content-layout":"","ast-site-content-layout":"default","site-content-style":"default","site-sidebar-style":"default","ast-global-header-display":"","ast-banner-title-visibility":"","ast-main-header-display":"","ast-hfb-above-header-display":"","ast-hfb-below-header-display":"","ast-hfb-mobile-header-display":"","site-post-title":"","ast-breadcrumbs-content":"","ast-featured-img":"","footer-sml-layout":"","ast-disable-related-posts":"","theme-transparent-header-meta":"","adv-header-id-meta":"","stick-header-meta":"","header-above-stick-meta":"","header-main-stick-meta":"","header-below-stick-meta":"","astra-migrate-meta-layouts":"default","ast-page-background-enabled":"default","ast-page-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-5)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"ast-content-background-meta":{"desktop":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"tablet":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""},"mobile":{"background-color":"var(--ast-global-color-4)","background-image":"","background-repeat":"repeat","background-position":"center center","background-size":"auto","background-attachment":"scroll","background-type":"","background-media":"","overlay-type":"","overlay-color":"","overlay-opacity":"","overlay-gradient":""}},"jetpack_post_was_ever_published":false,"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-5412","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"jetpack_shortlink":"https:\/\/wp.me\/PgKEUK-1pi","jetpack-related-posts":[{"id":5248,"url":"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/consumer-protection\/","url_meta":{"origin":5412,"position":0},"title":"Consumer Protection","author":"wgu","date":"February 15, 2025","format":false,"excerpt":"VOLUME 15 \u2022 ISSUE 2 HOW TO USE THE RESTATEMENT OF CONSUMER CONTRACTS: A GUIDE FOR JUDGES Ian Ayres & Gregory Klass Many significant changes to contract law over the past hundred years have been driven by changes in the technology of contracting\u2014the mechanisms people use (or try to use)\u2026","rel":"","context":"Similar post","block_context":{"text":"Similar post","link":""},"img":{"alt_text":"","src":"","width":0,"height":0},"classes":[]},{"id":5347,"url":"https:\/\/journals.law.harvard.edu\/hblr\/volume-15-issue-1\/","url_meta":{"origin":5412,"position":1},"title":"Volume 15, Issue 1","author":"wgu","date":"March 4, 2025","format":false,"excerpt":"SECURITIES & FINANCIAL REGULATION CAN SECTION 11 BE SAVED?: \u201cTRACING\u201d A PATH TO ITS SURVIVAL John C. 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